In the Charente, the winter cold changes from one place to another. One winter in ten, it falls to about −10 °C in the Cognaçais, −11 °C in the Sud-Charente and the Charente limousine, −12 °C in Angoulême and the Angoumois, and −13 °C in the Ruffécois.
We went through thirty winters of Météo-France records, from 1996 to 2026, and compared them with the hardiness of each of our plants. Choose your area below. You will find:
- the citrus trees that spend the winter outdoors without protection;
- those that need a fleece on frosty nights;
- those that stay in a pot.
The lists are kept up to date: only the plants available today are shown with a photo.
- −5 °C or milder
- −6 to −7 °C
- −8 to −9 °C
- −10 to −11 °C
- −12 to −13 °C
- −14 to −15 °C
- −16 to −17 °C
- −18 to −19 °C
- −20 °C and colder
Colour: the cold of one winter in ten, on the plain. Click on a neighbouring département to see its page. Map of the whole of France.
Choose your area:
−10 °Cone winter in ten
Cognaçais and the lower Charente valley
Cognac, Jarnac, Segonzac, Châteauneuf-sur-Charente, Châteaubernard, Graves-Saint-Amant
See the citrus trees for this area
The mildest part of the département, the closest to the ocean: −10 °C one winter in ten and −6 °C in an ordinary winter. Cognac stays at −9.8 °C; on the banks of the river, Graves-Saint-Amant falls to −11.4 °C. Citranges, yuzus, satsumas and kumquats spend the winter outdoors here; orange trees and clementines need a fleece at each frost, against a south-facing wall. Lemon trees stay in pots. The soil is often chalky.
Graves-Saint-Amant
The soil of the area and the rootstock
According to the soil map, this area mostly has shallow chalky soils, river alluvium and chalky soils. In practice, the soil is often chalky.
Rootstocks to favour: FA5, then C35.
Your plot may be different. Look at the Géoportail soil map (in French) around your home, then refine with our 5-step test.
In open ground, without protection
They withstand −10 °C. In the first years, a fleece on nights below −5 °C is a sensible precaution.
-
Satsuma China S-2
down to −12 °C · €41.00
-
Ermelo Orange
down to −10 °C · €47.00
-
Changsha Mandarin
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Changshan Huyou
down to −11 °C · €38.00
-
Sudachi Seneca
down to −12 °C · €42.00
-
Yuzu 3
down to −15 °C · €38.00
-
Fukushu Kumquat
down to −10 °C · €32.30
-
Morton Citrange
down to −15 °C · €35.00
See all 32 available plants that withstand −10 °C
Sold out for now: 27 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Ambersweet, Auline, Bendizao Mandarin, Corsican Mountain Orange, Hana Yuzu, Harumi, Jabara, Juanita Mandarin, Kino Kuni Mikakukishu Mandarin, Meiwa Kumquat, Minneola, Nameiwa Kumquat, Rio Red Grapefruit, Sanbokan, Satsuma China S-3, Satsuma Dobashi Beni, Satsuma Iwasaki, Satsuma Kowano, Satsuma Louisiana, Satsuma Miho, Satsuma Pucheng, Satsuma Saigon, Satsuma Waze, Setubalense Mandarin, Shunkokan, Thornless Yuzu, Yuzu.
In open ground, with a fleece on frosty nights
They withstand −7 °C. A winter fleece put on at each frost and removed as soon as the frost stops, and a sheltered spot against a south-facing wall.
-
Fukumoto Orange
down to −8 °C · €35.00
-
Clemenules Clementine
down to −9 °C · €35.00
-
Marsh Seedless Grapefruit
down to −9 °C · €29.75
-
Kabosu
down to −9 °C · €38.00
-
Orisa 9 Tangor
down to −9 °C · €41.00
-
Yuko
down to −9 °C · €38.00
-
Tavares Limequat
down to −7 °C · €29.75
-
Cara Cara Orange
down to −8 °C · €35.00
See all 33 available plants that withstand −7 °C
Sold out for now: 19 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Dom Joao Orange, Fragola Orange, Haruka, Hassaku, Hyuganatsu, Iyo Mikan Tangor, Mandalate Mandarin, Mapo Tangelo, Moro Orange, Natsudaidai, Ota 38 Tangor, Salustiana Orange, Sciara x Clem Blood Tangor, Seminole, US SuperNa, Ugli, Vaniglia Sanguigno Orange, Wekiwa Tangelolo, Z194 Ichangensis x Sinensis.
The others: in a pot, brought in for the winter
Lemons, limes and less hardy citrus (more tender than −7 °C): in a large pot, outdoors from spring to autumn and brought into a bright, frost-free room for the winter. All our citrus trees.
−11 °Cone winter in ten
Sud-Charente
Barbezieux-Saint-Hilaire, Baignes-Sainte-Radegonde, Chalais, Montmoreau, Aubeterre-sur-Dronne, Brossac
See the citrus trees for this area
The hills of the south, around Barbezieux and Chalais: −11 °C one winter in ten and −7 °C in an ordinary winter. Salles-de-Barbezieux falls lower, to −12.5 °C. Citranges, yuzus and the hardiest satsumas spend the winter outdoors here; orange trees, the hardiest clementines, the other satsumas and kumquats need a fleece, against a south-facing wall. Lemon trees and the other clementines stay in pots. The soil, chalky and often clay, sometimes stays wet in winter: plant on a mound.
Salles-de-Barbezieux
The soil of the area and the rootstock
According to the soil map, this area mostly has chalky soils, shallow chalky soils and soils over clay, waterlogged in winter. In practice, the soil is often winter-wet, clayey, silty and chalky.
Rootstocks to favour: Poncirus, then FA5. Poncirus only if the active lime stays below about 5% (soil analysis).
Your plot may be different. Look at the Géoportail soil map (in French) around your home, then refine with our 5-step test.
In open ground, without protection
They withstand −11 °C. In the first years, a fleece on nights below −5 °C is a sensible precaution.
-
Satsuma China S-2
down to −12 °C · €41.00
-
Changsha Mandarin
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Changshan Huyou
down to −11 °C · €38.00
-
Sudachi Seneca
down to −12 °C · €42.00
-
Yuzu 3
down to −15 °C · €38.00
-
Morton Citrange
down to −15 °C · €35.00
-
Clemyuz
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Eremorange
down to −12 °C · €35.00
See all 19 available plants that withstand −11 °C
Sold out for now: 12 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Ambersweet, Auline, Bendizao Mandarin, Hana Yuzu, Satsuma Dobashi Beni, Satsuma Kowano, Satsuma Louisiana, Satsuma Miho, Satsuma Saigon, Satsuma Waze, Thornless Yuzu, Yuzu.
In open ground, with a fleece on frosty nights
They withstand −8 °C. A winter fleece put on at each frost and removed as soon as the frost stops, and a sheltered spot against a south-facing wall.
-
Satsuma Miyagawa
down to −10 °C · €38.00
-
Ermelo Orange
down to −10 °C · €47.00
-
Kishu Kino Kuni Mandarin
down to −10 °C · €42.00
-
Welker Grapefruit
down to −10 °C · €35.00
-
Kinkoji
down to −10 °C · €38.00
-
Orisa 9 Tangor
down to −9 °C · €41.00
-
Yuko
down to −9 °C · €38.00
-
Fukushu Kumquat
down to −10 °C · €32.30
See all 38 available plants that withstand −8 °C
Sold out for now: 31 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Corsican Mountain Orange, Dom Joao Orange, Fragola Orange, Haruka, Harumi, Hassaku, Hyuganatsu, Jabara, Juanita Mandarin, Kino Kuni Mikakukishu Mandarin, Mapo Tangelo, Meiwa Kumquat, Minneola, Moro Orange, Nameiwa Kumquat, Natsudaidai, Ota 38 Tangor, Rio Red Grapefruit, Salustiana Orange, Sanbokan, Satsuma China S-3, Satsuma Iwasaki, Satsuma Pucheng, Sciara x Clem Blood Tangor, Seminole, Setubalense Mandarin, Shunkokan, Ugli, Vaniglia Sanguigno Orange, Wekiwa Tangelolo, Z194 Ichangensis x Sinensis.
The others: in a pot, brought in for the winter
Lemons, limes and less hardy citrus (more tender than −8 °C): in a large pot, outdoors from spring to autumn and brought into a bright, frost-free room for the winter. All our citrus trees.
−11 °Cone winter in ten
Charente limousine
Confolens, Chabanais, Montembœuf, Massignac, Saulgond, La Péruse
See the citrus trees for this area
The plateaus of the east, with more rain: −11 °C one winter in ten and −7 °C in an ordinary winter. Montembœuf (247 m) stays at −10.0 °C, Saulgond falls to −11.9 °C. Citranges, yuzus and the hardiest satsumas spend the winter outdoors here; orange trees, the hardiest clementines, the other satsumas and kumquats need a fleece, against a south-facing wall. Lemon trees and the other clementines stay in pots. The soil often stays wet in winter: take care of drainage and plant on a mound.
La Péruse
The soil of the area and the rootstock
According to the soil map, this area mostly has ordinary brown soils, silty soils and soils waterlogged part of the year. In practice, the soil is often winter-wet, clayey and silty.
Rootstocks to favour: Poncirus, then FA5.
Your plot may be different. Look at the Géoportail soil map (in French) around your home, then refine with our 5-step test.
In open ground, without protection
They withstand −11 °C. In the first years, a fleece on nights below −5 °C is a sensible precaution.
-
Satsuma China S-2
down to −12 °C · €41.00
-
Changsha Mandarin
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Changshan Huyou
down to −11 °C · €38.00
-
Sudachi Seneca
down to −12 °C · €42.00
-
Yuzu 3
down to −15 °C · €38.00
-
Morton Citrange
down to −15 °C · €35.00
-
Clemyuz
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Eremorange
down to −12 °C · €35.00
See all 19 available plants that withstand −11 °C
Sold out for now: 12 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Ambersweet, Auline, Bendizao Mandarin, Hana Yuzu, Satsuma Dobashi Beni, Satsuma Kowano, Satsuma Louisiana, Satsuma Miho, Satsuma Saigon, Satsuma Waze, Thornless Yuzu, Yuzu.
In open ground, with a fleece on frosty nights
They withstand −8 °C. A winter fleece put on at each frost and removed as soon as the frost stops, and a sheltered spot against a south-facing wall.
-
Satsuma Miyagawa
down to −10 °C · €38.00
-
Ermelo Orange
down to −10 °C · €47.00
-
Kishu Kino Kuni Mandarin
down to −10 °C · €42.00
-
Welker Grapefruit
down to −10 °C · €35.00
-
Kinkoji
down to −10 °C · €38.00
-
Orisa 9 Tangor
down to −9 °C · €41.00
-
Yuko
down to −9 °C · €38.00
-
Fukushu Kumquat
down to −10 °C · €32.30
See all 38 available plants that withstand −8 °C
Sold out for now: 31 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Corsican Mountain Orange, Dom Joao Orange, Fragola Orange, Haruka, Harumi, Hassaku, Hyuganatsu, Jabara, Juanita Mandarin, Kino Kuni Mikakukishu Mandarin, Mapo Tangelo, Meiwa Kumquat, Minneola, Moro Orange, Nameiwa Kumquat, Natsudaidai, Ota 38 Tangor, Rio Red Grapefruit, Salustiana Orange, Sanbokan, Satsuma China S-3, Satsuma Iwasaki, Satsuma Pucheng, Sciara x Clem Blood Tangor, Seminole, Setubalense Mandarin, Shunkokan, Ugli, Vaniglia Sanguigno Orange, Wekiwa Tangelolo, Z194 Ichangensis x Sinensis.
The others: in a pot, brought in for the winter
Lemons, limes and less hardy citrus (more tender than −8 °C): in a large pot, outdoors from spring to autumn and brought into a bright, frost-free room for the winter. All our citrus trees.
−12 °Cone winter in ten
Angoulême and the Angoumois
Angoulême, La Couronne, Soyaux, Ruelle-sur-Touvre, Mansle, La Rochefoucauld, Montbron, Marthon
See the citrus trees for this area
The Charente valley around Angoulême and the hills to the east: −12 °C one winter in ten and −8 °C in an ordinary winter. La Couronne, on the edge of Angoulême, stays at −11.1 °C; Marthon, further east, falls to −13.5 °C. Citranges, yuzus and the hardiest satsumas spend the winter outdoors here; the other satsumas, kumquats and the hardiest clementines need a fleece. Orange trees, lemon trees and the other clementines stay in pots. In chalky, clay soil, plant on a mound.
Marthon
The soil of the area and the rootstock
According to the soil map, this area mostly has chalky soils, shallow chalky soils and calcium-rich but barely chalky soils. In practice, the soil is often chalky, clayey and silty.
Rootstocks to favour: FA5, then Poncirus. Poncirus only if the active lime stays below about 5% (soil analysis).
Your plot may be different. Look at the Géoportail soil map (in French) around your home, then refine with our 5-step test.
In open ground, without protection
They withstand −12 °C. In the first years, a fleece on nights below −5 °C is a sensible precaution.
-
Satsuma China S-2
down to −12 °C · €41.00
-
Changsha Mandarin
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Sudachi Seneca
down to −12 °C · €42.00
-
Yuzu 3
down to −15 °C · €38.00
-
Morton Citrange
down to −15 °C · €35.00
-
Clemyuz
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Eremorange
down to −12 °C · €35.00
-
Satsuma Owari FS
down to −12 °C · €42.00
See all 17 available plants that withstand −12 °C
Sold out for now: 11 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Ambersweet, Auline, Bendizao Mandarin, Hana Yuzu, Satsuma Dobashi Beni, Satsuma Kowano, Satsuma Louisiana, Satsuma Saigon, Satsuma Waze, Thornless Yuzu, Yuzu.
In open ground, with a fleece on frosty nights
They withstand −9 °C. A winter fleece put on at each frost and removed as soon as the frost stops, and a sheltered spot against a south-facing wall.
-
Satsuma Miyagawa
down to −10 °C · €38.00
-
Ermelo Orange
down to −10 °C · €47.00
-
Shekwasha
down to −11 °C · €34.85
-
Changshan Huyou
down to −11 °C · €38.00
-
Kinkoji
down to −10 °C · €38.00
-
Orisa 9 Tangor
down to −9 °C · €41.00
-
Yuko
down to −9 °C · €38.00
-
Fukushu Kumquat
down to −10 °C · €32.30
See all 21 available plants that withstand −9 °C
Sold out for now: 20 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Corsican Mountain Orange, Haruka, Harumi, Hyuganatsu, Jabara, Juanita Mandarin, Kino Kuni Mikakukishu Mandarin, Mapo Tangelo, Meiwa Kumquat, Minneola, Nameiwa Kumquat, Natsudaidai, Rio Red Grapefruit, Sanbokan, Satsuma China S-3, Satsuma Iwasaki, Satsuma Miho, Satsuma Pucheng, Setubalense Mandarin, Shunkokan.
The others: in a pot, brought in for the winter
Lemons, limes and less hardy citrus (more tender than −9 °C): in a large pot, outdoors from spring to autumn and brought into a bright, frost-free room for the winter. All our citrus trees.
−13 °Cone winter in ten
Ruffécois and the north of the département
Ruffec, Aigre, Villefagnan, Tusson, Champagne-Mouton, Saint-Claud
See the citrus trees for this area
The north of the département is the coldest: −13 °C one winter in ten and −8 °C in an ordinary winter. Tusson and Le Vieux-Cérier fall to −12.7 °C, Ruffec to −11.6 °C. Citranges, Yuzu and Yuzu 3 spend the winter outdoors here; the other yuzus, satsumas and kumquats need a fleece at each frost, against a south-facing wall. Orange trees and clementines stay in pots. The soil, clay and often chalky, sometimes stays wet in winter: plant on a mound.
Tusson
The soil of the area and the rootstock
According to the soil map, this area mostly has chalky soils, ordinary brown soils and silty soils. In practice, the soil is often chalky, clayey, silty, winter-wet and acid.
Rootstocks to favour: Poncirus, then FA5. Poncirus only if the active lime stays below about 5% (soil analysis).
Your plot may be different. Look at the Géoportail soil map (in French) around your home, then refine with our 5-step test.
In open ground, without protection
They withstand −13 °C. In the first years, a fleece on nights below −5 °C is a sensible precaution.
In open ground, with a fleece on frosty nights
They withstand −10 °C. A winter fleece put on at each frost and removed as soon as the frost stops, and a sheltered spot against a south-facing wall.
-
Satsuma China S-2
down to −12 °C · €41.00
-
Ermelo Orange
down to −10 °C · €47.00
-
Changsha Mandarin
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Changshan Huyou
down to −11 °C · €38.00
-
Sudachi Seneca
down to −12 °C · €42.00
-
Ichang Lemon Shangyuan
down to −12 °C · €38.00
-
Fukushu Kumquat
down to −10 °C · €32.30
-
US 119
down to −12 °C · €35.00
See all 27 available plants that withstand −10 °C
Sold out for now: 25 other plants
On their page, “Notify me” lets you know when they are back: Ambersweet, Auline, Bendizao Mandarin, Corsican Mountain Orange, Harumi, Jabara, Juanita Mandarin, Kino Kuni Mikakukishu Mandarin, Meiwa Kumquat, Minneola, Nameiwa Kumquat, Rio Red Grapefruit, Sanbokan, Satsuma China S-3, Satsuma Dobashi Beni, Satsuma Iwasaki, Satsuma Kowano, Satsuma Louisiana, Satsuma Miho, Satsuma Pucheng, Satsuma Saigon, Satsuma Waze, Setubalense Mandarin, Shunkokan, Thornless Yuzu.
The others: in a pot, brought in for the winter
Lemons, limes and less hardy citrus (more tender than −10 °C): in a large pot, outdoors from spring to autumn and brought into a bright, frost-free room for the winter. All our citrus trees.
Readings from the Météo-France stations (winters 1996-1997 to 2025-2026)
| Station | Altitude | Ordinary winter | One winter in ten | Record | Winters at −9 °C or below |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Segonzac | 62 m | −5.7 °C | −10.2 °C | −12 °C (9 February 2012) | 6 out of 30 |
| Montembœuf | 247 m | −5.9 °C | −10 °C | −12.9 °C (9 February 2012) | 5 out of 30 |
| Cognac | 30 m | −6.2 °C | −9.8 °C | −11.3 °C (9 February 2012) | 4 out of 30 |
| La Couronne | 58 m | −6.6 °C | −11.1 °C | −11.9 °C (9 February 2012) | 6 out of 30 |
| Rioux-Martin | 81 m | −6.7 °C | −10.7 °C | −12.3 °C (9 February 2012) | 5 out of 30 |
| Ruffec | 121 m | −6.9 °C | −11.6 °C | −13 °C (9 February 2012) | 7 out of 22 |
| Graves-Saint-Amant | 22 m | −7 °C | −11.4 °C | −13.5 °C (9 February 2012) | 6 out of 22 |
| Passirac | 114 m | −7.1 °C | −10.6 °C | −11.8 °C (9 February 2012) | 8 out of 30 |
| La Péruse | 235 m | −7.1 °C | −11.1 °C | −14 °C (9 February 2012) | 8 out of 20 |
| Baignes-Sainte-Radegonde | 73 m | −7.4 °C | −10.9 °C | −12.6 °C (9 February 2012) | 6 out of 21 |
| Saulgond | 228 m | −7.6 °C | −11.9 °C | −12.8 °C (11 February 2012) | 9 out of 30 |
| Le Vieux-Cérier | 162 m | −7.6 °C | −12.7 °C | −14.3 °C (9 February 2012) | 9 out of 30 |
| Saint-Front | 99 m | −7.7 °C | −11.7 °C | −13.7 °C (9 February 2012) | 9 out of 20 |
| Bors | 98 m | −7.8 °C | −11.4 °C | −13.2 °C (9 February 2012) | 7 out of 21 |
| Tusson | 88 m | −8.1 °C | −12.7 °C | −14.7 °C (6 February 2012) | 11 out of 30 |
| Salles-de-Barbezieux | 74 m | −8.9 °C | −12.5 °C | −16.7 °C (9 February 2012) | 11 out of 22 |
| Marthon | 120 m | −9.3 °C | −13.5 °C | −15.6 °C (9 February 2012) | 13 out of 21 |
“Ordinary winter”: half of the winters go colder, the other half less cold. “One winter in ten”: this cold is reached or exceeded in about one winter in ten. Calculations by the Greffeur d'agrumes nursery.
How to read these figures
The hardiness given on our product pages is the cold that an adult, healthy and hardened citrus tree withstands during a short frost. We compare it with the cold that comes back about one winter in ten: a plant listed “without protection” withstands at least that cold. In harsher winters, about three in thirty, keep a winter fleece ready for the coldest nights.
Very harsh winters are still possible. In February 2012, Cognac fell to −11.3 °C, Marthon to −15.6 °C and Salles-de-Barbezieux to −16.7 °C. Such cold can burn the leaves or a few shoots of a citrus tree that is only just hardy enough. Wait for spring to see what grows back before pruning.
To understand what helps a tree get through frost, read Understanding citrus hardiness.
Our advice for the Charente
- Avoid hollows. Cold air flows down and collects at the bottom of valleys. The records show it: one winter in ten, Graves-Saint-Amant, on the banks of the Charente, falls to −11.4 °C while Cognac stays at −9.8 °C, and Marthon to −13.5 °C against −11.1 °C at La Couronne. Plant halfway up a slope or against a south-facing wall, never at the lowest point of the garden.
- Take care of drainage. In the Charente limousine, the soil often stays wet in winter. In the Angoumois, the Sud-Charente and the Ruffécois, it is often clay. In heavy soil, plant on a mound.
- Choose the rootstock for your soil. Poncirus is the most cold-resistant. In chalky soil, as often in the Cognaçais and the Angoumois, FA5 does better. Our 5-step test helps you choose: Which rootstock should you choose?
- Plant in spring, once the frosts are over. The tree then has a whole season to take root before its first winter.
- Protect young plants on nights below −5 °C during the first years. Put the winter fleece on at each frost and take it off as soon as the frost stops.
- Mulch in summer only, against drought, without the straw touching the trunk. Pull it away from the foot of the tree at the end of autumn: moisture at the collar encourages phytophthora.
Frequently asked questions
Can I plant a lemon tree in the ground in Angoulême?
Not without risk. Lemon trees withstand about −5 °C, and La Couronne, on the edge of the town, falls to around −7 °C in an ordinary winter. Keep them in pots, brought in for the winter. For a sour fruit in the ground, choose a yuzu or a hardy lemon substitute instead. You will find them in Lemons and lemon substitutes.
Which citrus trees withstand the cold best in the Charente?
Citranges, which withstand −15 °C, spend the winter without protection throughout the département. Yuzus and the hardiest satsumas also manage without it everywhere; in the Ruffécois, only Yuzu and Yuzu 3 stay without protection, while the other yuzus (Yuzu 30, thornless, Tada Nishiki) and these satsumas need a fleece on frosty nights. In the Cognaçais, all satsumas and kumquats also spend the winter without protection. They are brought together in Hardy citrus.
What about orange trees and clementines?
They withstand −7 to −9 °C depending on the variety. In the Cognaçais, orange trees and clementines can be grown in the ground, with a fleece on frosty nights, sheltered by a south-facing wall. In the Sud-Charente and the Charente limousine, this applies to orange trees and the hardiest clementines; in Angoulême and the Angoumois, only to the hardiest clementines. In the Ruffécois, and for the other varieties, keep them in pots.
My town is not listed: which area should I choose?
Take the nearest area at the same altitude, then compare with the nearest station in the table of readings. Take off about one degree for every 150 m of extra altitude, and one or two degrees if you are in a hollow.
These figures are guidelines. Your garden may be milder or colder than the nearest station. A question about your plot? Write to us.
Sources: Météo-France, daily basic climatological data (data.gouv.fr, Licence Ouverte 2.0); near the eastern border, also the Deutscher Wetterdienst (Datenlizenz Deutschland 2.0); towns, altitudes and boundaries: INSEE, IGN (Admin Express, RGE ALTI) and geo.api.gouv.fr (Licence Ouverte); soils: dominant soil map INRAE / Gis Sol (Licence Ouverte). Topsoil lime: LUCAS, European Commission, JRC (ESDAC, Ballabio et al. 2019).